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https://www.selleckchem.com/products/bay80-6946.html The accelerated evolution and spread of pathogens are threats to host species. Agrobacteria require an oncogenic Ti or Ri plasmid to transfer genes into plants and cause disease. We developed a strategy to characterize virulence plasmids and applied it to analyze hundreds of strains collected between 1927 and 2017, on six continents and from more than 50 host species. In consideration of prior evidence for prolific recombination, it was surprising that oncogenic plasmids are descended from a few conserved lineages. Characterization of a hierarchy of features that promote or constrain plasticity allowed inference of the evolutionary history across the plasmid lineages. We uncovered epidemiological patterns that highlight the importance of plasmid transmission in pathogen diversification as well as in long-term persistence and the global spread of disease.Rice et al suggest that the CRISPR-associated transposase ShCAST system could lead to additional insertion products beyond simple integration of the donor. We clarify the outcomes of ShCAST-mediated insertions in Escherichia coli, which consist of both simple insertions and integration of the donor plasmid. This latter outcome can be avoided by use of a 5' nicked DNA donor.Strecker et al (Research Articles, 5 July 2019, p. 48) described a system for exploiting a Tn7-type transposon-encoded CRISPR-Cas system to make RNA-guided, programmable insertions. Although this system has great promise, we note that the well-established biochemistry of Tn7 suggests that the particular system used may insert not only the transposon but also the entire donor plasmid.Endosome biogenesis in eukaryotic cells is critical for nutrient uptake and plasma membrane integrity. Early endosomes initially contain Rab5, which is replaced by Rab7 on late endosomes prior to their fusion with lysosomes. Recruitment of Rab7 to endosomes requires the Mon1-Ccz1 guanosine exchange factor (GEF). Here,

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