This approach resulted in 99.4% biallelic indels rate in the transduced cells, leading to greater than 70% reduction of total NeuN proteins in the cortex, hippocampus and spinal cord. This work contributes to the optimization of CRISPR-mediated knockout and will be beneficial for fundamental and preclinical research.Cryptococcus spp., in particular Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, have an enormous impact on human health worldwide. The global burden of cryptococcal meningitis is almost a quarter of a million cases and 181,000 deaths annually, with mortality rates of 100% if infections remain untreated. Despite these alarming statistics, treatment options for cryptococcosis remain limited, with only three major classes of drugs approved for clinical use. Exacerbating the public health burden is the fact that the only new class of antifungal drugs developed in decades, the echinocandins, displays negligible antifungal activity against Cryptococcus spp., and the efficacy of the remaining therapeutics is hampered by host toxicity and pathogen resistance. Here, we describe the current arsenal of antifungal agents and the treatment strategies employed to manage cryptococcal disease.  https://www.selleckchem.com/products/tertiapin-q.html  We further elaborate on the recent advances in our understanding of the intrinsic and adaptive resistance mechanisms that are utilized by Cryptococcus spp. to evade therapeutic treatments. Finally, we review potential therapeutic strategies, including combination therapy, the targeting of virulence traits, impairing stress response pathways and modulating host immunity, to effectively treat infections caused by Cryptococcus spp. Overall, understanding of the mechanisms that regulate anti-cryptococcal drug resistance, coupled with advances in genomics technologies and high-throughput screening methodologies, will catalyse innovation and accelerate antifungal drug discovery.Polymicrobial biofilms are a hallmark of chronic wound infection. The forces governing assembly and maturation of these microbial ecosystems are largely unexplored but the consequences on host response and clinical outcome can be significant. In the context of wound healing, formation of a biofilm and a stable microbial community structure is associated with impaired tissue repair resulting in a non-healing chronic wound. These types of wounds can persist for years simmering below the threshold of classically defined clinical infection (which includes heat, pain, redness, and swelling) and cycling through phases of recurrent infection. In the most severe outcome, amputation of lower extremities may occur if spreading infection ensues. Here we take an ecological perspective to study priority effects and competitive exclusion on overall biofilm community structure in a three-membered community comprised of strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Citrobacter freundii, and Candida albicans derived from a chronic wound. We show that both priority effects and inter-bacterial competition for binding to C. albicans biofilms significantly shape community structure on both abiotic and biotic substrates, such as ex vivo human skin wounds. We further show attachment of C. freundii to C. albicans is mediated by mannose-binding lectins. Co-cultures of C. freundii and C. albicans trigger the yeast-to-hyphae transition, resulting in a significant increase in neutrophil death and inflammation compared to either species alone. Collectively, the results presented here facilitate our understanding of fungal-bacterial interactions and their effects on host-microbe interactions, pathogenesis, and ultimately, wound healing.Corals house a variety of microorganisms which they depend on for their survival, including endosymbiotic dinoflagellates (Symbiodiniaceae) and bacteria. While cnidarian-microorganism interactions are widely studied, Symbiodiniaceae-bacteria interactions are only just beginning to receive attention. Here, we describe the localization and composition of the bacterial communities associated with cultures of 11 Symbiodiniaceae strains from nine species and six genera. Three-dimensional confocal laser scanning and electron microscopy revealed bacteria are present inside the Symbiodiniaceae cells as well as closely associated with their external cell surface. Bacterial pure cultures and 16S rRNA gene metabarcoding from Symbiodiniaceae cultures highlighted distinct and highly diverse bacterial communities occur intracellularly, closely associated with the Symbiodiniaceae outer cell surface and loosely associated (i.e., in the surrounding culture media). The intracellular bacteria are highly conserved across Symbiodiniaceae species, suggesting they may be involved in Symbiodiniaceae physiology. Our findings provide unique new insights into the biology of Symbiodiniaceae.Bacteriophages play significant roles in the composition, diversity, and evolution of bacterial communities. Despite their importance, it remains unclear how phage diversity and phage-host interactions are spatially structured. Local adaptation may play a key role. Nitrogen-fixing symbiotic bacteria, known as rhizobia, have been shown to locally adapt to domesticated common bean at its Mesoamerican and Andean sites of origin. This may affect phage-rhizobium interactions. However, knowledge about the diversity and coevolution of phages with their respective Rhizobium populations is lacking. Here, through the study of four phage-Rhizobium communities in Mexico and Argentina, we show that both phage and host diversity is spatially structured. Cross-infection experiments demonstrated that phage infection rates were higher overall in sympatric rhizobia than in allopatric rhizobia except for one Argentinean community, indicating phage local adaptation and host maladaptation. Phage-host interactions were shaped by the genetic identity and geographic origin of both the phage and the host. The phages ranged from specialists to generalists, revealing a nested network of interactions. Our results suggest a key role of local adaptation to resident host bacterial communities in shaping the phage genetic and phenotypic composition, following a similar spatial pattern of diversity and coevolution to that in the host.