The present investigation examined social identification management among individuals affected by chronic illness. Because diabetes is a chronic medical condition that consists of a broad superordinate group with two nested subgroups of differing relative status (type 1 versus type 2), it is well-suited to an examination of positive identity management strategies used by individuals with chronic illness. A cross-sectional survey was conducted on individuals with diabetes (N = 399) to assess diabetes-related identity. Results indicated that individuals with type 1 diabetes reported greater identity centrality and greater preference for subgroup self-categorization ("individual affected by type 1 diabetes") over superordinate group categorization ("individual affected by diabetes") than did individuals with type 2 diabetes. The relationship between diabetes type and preferred categorization level was moderated by perceived intractability of their condition and perceived stigmatization of the lower status subgroup (i.e., type 2), suggesting that categorization level functions to maintain a positive self-concept. Further, categorization level moderated the negative relationship between identity centrality and feelings of depression and anger, suggesting that self-categorization might function to protect against self-concept threat. The present findings highlight the roles of group status, group boundary permeability, and perceived stigma on identity management strategies used by individuals with a chronic illness. Different classification of hospitals (COH) have an important impact on medical expenditures in China. The objective of this study is to examine the impact of COH on medical expenditures with the hope of providing insights into appropriate care and resource allocation. From the perspective of COH framework, using the Urban Employee Basic Medical Insurance (UEBMI) data of Chengdu City from 2011 to 2015, with sample size of 488,623 hospitalized patients, our study empirically analyzed the effect of COH on medical expenditure by multivariate regression modeling. The average medical expenditure was 5468.86 Yuan (CNY), the average expenditure of drug, diagnostic testing, medical consumables, nursing care, bed, surgery and blood expenditures were 1980.06 Yuan (CNY), 1536.27 Yuan (CNY), 500.01 Yuan (CNY), 166.23 Yuan (CNY), 221.98 Yuan (CNY), 983.18 Yuan (CNY) and 1733.21 Yuan (CNY) respectively. Patients included in the analysis were mainly elderly, with an average age of 86.65years old. Female and male gender were split evenly. The influence of COH on total medical expenditures was significantly negative (  < 0.001). The reimbursement ratio of UEBMI had a significantly positive (  < 0.001) effect on various types of medical expenditures, indicating that the higher the reimbursement ratio was, the higher the medical expenditures would be. COH influenced medical expenditures significantly. In consideration of reducing medical expenditures, the government should not only start from the supply side of healthcare services, but also focus on addressing the demand side. COH influenced medical expenditures significantly. In consideration of reducing medical expenditures, the government should not only start from the supply side of healthcare services, but also focus on addressing the demand side. Globally, there is a consensus to end the HIV/AIDS epidemic by 2030, and one of the strategies to achieve this target is that 90% of people living with HIV should know their HIV status. Even if there is strong evidence of clients' preference for testing in the community, HIV voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) continue to be undertaken predominantly in health facilities. Hence, empirical cost-effectiveness evidence about different HIV counseling and testing models is essential to inform whether such community-based testing are justifiable compared with additional resources required. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the cost-effectiveness of facility-based, stand-alone and mobile-based HIV voluntary counseling and testing methods in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Annual economic costs of counseling and testing methods were collected from the providers' perspective from July 2016 to June 2017. Ingredients based bottom-up costing approach was applied. The effectiveness of the interventions was The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio for mobile-based VCT compared with facility-based VCT was USD 239 per HIV positive case. Using a mobile-based VCT approach costs less than both the facility-based and stand-alone approaches, in terms of both unit cost per tested individual and unit cost per HIV seropositive cases identified. The stand-alone VCT approach was not cost-effective compared to facility-based and mobile-based VCT. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio for mobile-based VCT compared with facility-based VCT was USD 239 per HIV positive case. This study aimed to examine the cost-effectiveness of one-time standard endoscopic screening with Lugol's iodine staining for esophageal cancer (EC) in China. A Markov decision analysis model with eleven states was built. Individuals aged 40 to 69years were classified into six age groups in five-year intervals. Three different strategies were adopted for each cohort (1) no screening; (2) one-time endoscopic screening with Lugol's iodine staining with an annual follow-up for low-grade intraepithelial neoplasia (LGIN); and (3) one-time endoscopic screening with Lugol's iodine staining without follow-up. Quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) indicated the effectiveness of the model. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) was used as the evaluation indicator. https://www.selleckchem.com/products/sndx-5613.html Sensitivity analysis was performed to assess the robustness of the model. One-time screening with follow-up was the undominated strategy for individuals aged 40-44 and 45-49years, which saved USD 10,942.57 and USD 6611.73 per QALY gained . For those aged 50-69years, the nonscreening scenarios were undominated. One-time screening without follow-up was the extended dominated strategy. Compared to screening strategies without follow-up, all the screening strategies with follow-up were more cost-effective, with the ICER increasing from 299.57 USD/QALY for individuals aged 40-44years to 1617.72 USD/QALY for individuals aged 65-69years. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis (PSA) supported the results of the base case analysis. One-time EC screening with follow-up targeting individuals aged 40-49years was the most cost-effective strategy. One-time EC screening with follow-up targeting individuals aged 40-49 years was the most cost-effective strategy.