Focusing on the developmental process of the brain, we propose a neural network model of functional differentiation including functional parcellation. We explain the emerging process of functional elements, of the system through the constraints, which act on the whole network system. We explain several kinds of differentiation, such as the differentiation of neuronal cells, functional modules, and the sensory neurons, thereby proposing three hypotheses.To study cortical excitability changes induced by external stimulation with a certain rhythm, we developed a new method using motor evoked potentials (MEPs) elicited by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) over the primary motor cortex. In this method, three conditioning TMS with the intensity below the motor threshold are given prior to the supra-threshold test stimulus with the four TMSs were separated by a certain interval (triad-conditioning stimulation TCS). In healthy volunteers, MEP facilitation was elicited at an interval of 25ms, whereas TCSs with other intervals induced no facilitation. This frequency-dependent facilitation may reflect some intrinsic rhythm of M1 (25ms, i.e. 40Hz). In cortical myoclonus, the facilitation at 25ms was gone whereas facilitation was elicited by triad-conditioning stimulus at 40ms (25Hz), which is consistent with a previously reported abnormal beta rhythm in cortical myoclonus reported previously.  https://www.selleckchem.com/  Facilitation at 25ms was evoked in neither Parkinson's disease nor in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. With TCS, we were able to investigate the intrinsic rhythmic activity of M1 and its changes in neurological disorders.I describe quadripulse stimulation (QPS) briefly, and show several examples of its applications, such as rTMS treatment of Parkinson's disease, gait induction by lumbar rTMS, and roles of presupplementary motor area (pre-SMA) and SMA in visuo-motor sequence learning, role of SMA in negative compatibility effect, and role of dendritic back propagation potential in I-wave generation.Electroencephalographic recordings of human brain oscillations have been performed over approximately a century. Noninvasive methods for manipulation of brain oscillations are currently available. Reportedly, the manipulation of brain oscillations alters human behavior and cognition and is also used for "oscillotherapy" to treat many neurological diseases. In this review, we summarize the physiological mechanisms of brain oscillations, human behavioral and cognitive changes, and oscillotherapy; we have focused on our recent findings of the manipulation of human brain oscillations during bipedal walking and gait disorder recovery.The brain is a kind of very large-scale integration circuit or its beyond that produces extremely various ranges of electroencephalogram. Epilepsy is a state caused by explosively hyperexcitable brain activities. Recently, it has been suggested that not only the hyperexcitability of neurons but also glial cells, which were previously thought to be silent or plain, play a crucial role in the acquisition of epileptogenicity. In this review article, we will comprehensively describe the utility of the analysis of brain activities from extremely low to high frequency oscillations. Our multi-institute study confirmed that ictal direct current shifts (ictal DC) precedes ictal high-frequency oscillations (ictal HFOs), being more prominent in neocortical epilepsy than in temporal lobe epilepsy. Moreover, we revealed that the complete resection of the core regions of ictal DC shifts significantly correlated with favorable outcomes after epileptic surgery. Taking our findings and previous knowledge into account, we will address the importance of not only neuronal but also glial functions towards the better understanding of pathogenesis of the so-called "chronic" state of epilepsy.What is the physiological mechanism of the harmonic dynamics of whole-brain activity? As a clue to answering this question, I have summarized the anatomical findings of global brain circuits, including the basal ganglia and cerebellum. The thalamus always appeared in these circuits as a collection point for all information. The "parallel circuit" seemed to be a basic structure of the global brain circuits. The interaction between parallel circuits was suggested to be achieved by convergence and divergence of information through the parallel circuits, and by switching between them.Oscillatory neuronal (electrical) activity in defined frequency ranges supports synchronous interactions between anatomically distinct regions of the human brain during cognitive tasks. Here in, this study presents a review of our previous studies, focusing on the neural oscillations in the sensory systems in response to external stimuli in normal healthy subjects and those with neurological disorders. Event-related evoked responses, using magnetoencephalography and high-density electroencephalography, were applied to evaluate neuromagnetic oscillations. This study demonstrated that altered neural synchronization plays an important role in distributed cortico-cortical processing. Therefore, some neuropsychiatric disorders can be conceptualized as network diseases.The frontal lobe consists of motor and prefrontal cortices with correlated but hierarchically organized functions. Specifically, cellular activity and oscillations are highly context dependent. On the other hand, cortical oscillations are due to the dynamic balance between excitation and inhibition. Several types of inhibitory neurons play distinct functional roles. This chapter reviews oscillatory phenomena and neural activity in the frontal lobes, as well as the local circuits underlying different oscillatory modes.Network disorders of the basal ganglia may underlie the pathophysiology of movement disorders, such as Parkinson's disease and dystonia. The following models have been proposed to explain network disorders (1) the firing rate model an activity imbalance between the direct, indirect, and hyperdirect pathways induces changes in the mean firing rate of the output nuclei of the basal ganglia and causes hypokinetic or hyperkinetic movement disorders, (2) the firing pattern model oscillatory and/or synchronized activity in the basal ganglia disturbs information processing in this area, resulting in motor symptoms and, (3) the dynamic activity model abnormal neuronal modulations through the direct, indirect, and hyperdirect pathways disrupt the balance between movement-related inhibition and surrounding excitation in the output nuclei, which leads to motor symptoms. We present a critical analysis of these models in this review. Stereotactic surgery, which involves the application of high-frequency electrical stimulation (deep brain stimulation) or coagulation of a small area in the basal ganglia is an effective therapeutic strategy to treat movement disorders.