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https://www.selleckchem.com/products/kribb11.html That arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi covary with plant communities is clear, and many papers report non-random associations between symbiotic partners. However, these studies do not test the causal relationship, or "codependency", whereby the composition of one guild affects the composition of the other. Here we outline underlying requirements for codependency, compare important drivers for both plant and AM fungal communities, and assess how host preference-a pre-requisite for codependency-changes across spatiotemporal scales and taxonomic resolution for both plants and AM fungi. We find few examples in the literature designed to test for codependency and those that do have been conducted within plots or mesocosms. Also, while plants and AM fungi respond similarly to coarse environmental filters, most variation remains unexplained with host identity explaining less than 30% of the variation in AM fungal communities. These results combined question the likelihood of predictable co-occurrence, and therefore evolution of codependency, between plant and AM fungal taxa across locations. We argue that codependency is most likely to occur in homogeneous environments where specific plant - AM fungal pairings have functional consequences for the symbiosis. We end by outlining critical aspects to consider moving forward.Key points The primary motor cortex (M1) is fundamentally important for the acquisition of skilled motor behaviours. We tested the excitability changes of distinct M1 circuits at movement onset with TMS H-reflex conditioning. Human subjects trained a discrete spatiotemporal motor skill. Practice was associated with reduced kinematic variability and improved motor performance. Performance improvements were paralleled by task-specific excitability increases of the fastest corticospinal connections at infragranular layer 5b of M1. No task-related changes in excitability were observed at supragranular layers. Ex

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