Ghrelin is a peptide, secreted mainly from the stomach. But, it is also produced in the brain. Studies have confirmed the positive impact of ghrelin on memory formation. However, the expression levels of ghrelin or its receptors were not measured in the brain during the process of memory formation. The probable alteration in the expression levels of ghrelin or its receptors in the brain during memory formation can be a reason for the contribution of its signaling in this process. We quantified the gene expression levels of ghrelin and its receptors in the hippocampus during fear and spatial memory consolidation. Thirty- nine adult male Wistar rats weighing 180-220 g were utilized. Memory consolidation was evaluated using the inhibitory avoidance task and Morris water maze. Rats were euthanized at different times (1, 3, and 24 h) post-training and their hippocampi were removed and freezed directly in liquid nitrogen. Quantitative real-time polymerize chain reaction (PCR) was used to quantify the messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) expression levels of the hippocampal ghrelin and its receptors. The mRNA levels of ghrelin exhibited a significant increase, 24 h post-training in the inhibitory avoidance task, while its receptor levels were down-regulated. Also, the mRNA expression levels of the hippocampal ghrelin were not changed significantly during memory consolidation in the Morris water maze, while its receptor showed a significant increase, 24 h post-training. The results show a differential profile of the expression levels of the hippocampal ghrelin or its receptor mRNA during fear or spatial memory consolidation. This proposes that a local increase in the hippocampal ghrelin or its receptor levels might be crucial for fear, and spatial memory consolidation. However, due to the small sample sizes, it is worth noting the preliminary nature of the conclusions in the present study.
  We recently reported that tumor necrosis factor (TNF) signaling via the TNFR1 and TNFR2 receptors mediates the effects of long-term exercise on locomotion, cognition and anxiety, but not depressive-like behavior. We now investigated whether the TNF signaling via its receptors also mediates the effects of short-term exercise on cognition, anxiety and depressive-like behaviors.
 
  Thirteen-month-old C57BL/6 (WT), TNF
  , TNFR1
  , and TNFR2
  mice were provided with 4 weeks of voluntary wheel running followed by behavioral testing using an established behavioral battery. Each genotype had a respective non-exercise control.
 
  There was no interaction between genotype and exercise in any of the tests but the main effect of genotype, and not exercise, were found to be significant in the open field (OF), forced-swim test (FST) and Barnes maze (BM). In the OF, the control and exercise TNFR2
  mice spent significantly less time in the inner zone than mice in the control and exercise WT and TNF
  cohorts. In the FST, ctly, it does not mediate the effects of short-term exercise on these behaviors in middle-aged mice.Oxytocin (OT) is a nanopeptide released into systemic circulation via the posterior pituitary (peripheral) and into the central nervous system via widespread OTergic pathways (central). Central OT plays a significant role in variety of functions from social and executive cognition to immune regulation. Many ongoing studies explore its therapeutic potential for variety of neuropsychiatric disorders. Measures of peripheral OT levels are most frequently used as an indicator of its concentration in the central nervous system in humans and animal models. In this study, LC-MS/MS was used to measure OT in pituitary samples collected from adult male macaque monkeys in order to explore the correlation between individual levels of OT in the CSF (central) and pituitary (peripheral). We quantified individual differences in the levels of OT in the pituitaries (44-151 ng/mg) and CSF (41-66 pg/mL) of these monkeys. A positive correlation between these two measures was identified. These preliminary results allow for future analyses to determine whether LC-MS/MS measures of peripheral OT can be used as markers of OT levels in the brain of nonhuman primates that serve as valuable models for many human neuropsychiatric disorders.Gastrointestinal hormones are peptides, and the gastrointestinal tract is the largest endocrine organ in the body for production of peptide hormones. As a premise for accurate measurement of gastrointestinal hormones, the present review provides first an overview over the complex biology of the hormones The structures and structural homologies; biogenetic aspects; phenotype variabilities; and cellular expression in- and outside the digestive tract. Second, the different methodological principles for measurement are discussed Bioassay, radioimmunoassay (RIA), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), mass-spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and processing-independent analysis (PIA). Third, the variability of secretion patterns for some of the gut hormones is illustrated. Finally, the diagnostic value of gut hormone measurement is discussed. The review concludes that measurement of gastrointestinal peptide hormones is relevant not only for examination of digestive functions and diseases, but also for extra-intestinal functions. Moreover, it concludes that, so far, immunoassay technologies (RIA and ELISA) in modernized forms are still the most feasible for accurate measurements of gastrointestinal hormones in biological fluids. Mass-spectrometry technologies are promising, but still too insensitive and expensive.Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) benefits are rapidly depleted after distribution. This phenomenon, known as the benefit cycle, is associated with poor nutrition and health outcomes. Proposed interventions targeting the benefit cycle often focus on impulsive decision-making. However, it remains unclear whether shopper impulsivity is associated with food purchasing behavior. Using data from a prospective trial, we evaluate whether shopper impulsivity is associated with food purchasing behavior before and after households receive nutrition assistance. In this study, 249 low-income households in the Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota, metropolitan area received monthly benefits for three months. Overall impulsivity and impulsivity subtraits of the primary shopper was assessed using the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11.  https://www.selleckchem.com/products/abc294640.html  Both total food expenditures and expenditures for two specific categories (fruits and vegetables, and foods high in added sugar) were evaluated. Generalized estimating equations were used to model household expenditures as a function of week since benefit distribution, impulsivity, and their interaction.