The objective is to prevent malnutrition, and uremic symptoms. Early diagnosis and prompt intervention may delay the progression of CKDu in the early stages.In the last decade, pockets of endemic nephropathy have been recognized worldwide, in regions of Central America, Sri Lanka, and India. In India, the nephropathy has been recognized in the Uddanam area of north Andhra Pradesh and has been termed the Uddanam endemic nephropathy (UEN). The disease is distinctive in that besides the geographic distribution, it affects rural populations engaged in farm labor and agriculture, often silent in the initial phase with most patients presenting with advanced renal failure. The renal biopsy findings in all geographic areas including UEN have been one of a chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis with varying degrees of tubular injury, interstitial inflammation, tubular atrophy, and interstitial fibrosis with nonspecific glomerular obsolescence and lack of immune deposits. More recently, the demonstration of dysmorphic lysosomes in renal biopsies has favored a toxic etiology. There are thus many gaps in the understanding of this serious disease prevalent among poorer populations.An increase in the prevalence of chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu) was observed in several countries of the world since the early 2000s. We reviewed the literature to summarize the existing knowledge regarding epidemiology, clinical features, and risk factors for CKDu in Sri Lanka.  https://www.selleckchem.com/products/cnqx.html  We reviewed published literature from PubMed and unpublished literature from literature repository of CKDu published by the World Health Organization. We identified 36 articles based on various inclusion/exclusion criteria and reviewed the full text of all selected articles. The prevalence of CKDu was approximately 5% in endemic areas based on the surveillance data. CKDu accounted for 70% of CKD cases in endemic areas. Clustering of cases was observed in select divisions and districts in the dry region of the country. Low body mass index, normal blood pressure, scanty proteinuria, and tubulointerstitial pathology were characteristics of early stages of a disease. Genetic susceptibility, farmer as occupation, heavy metals (cadmium and arsenic), and drinking well water were identified as risk factors. Data were limited on the association with agrochemical use and heat stress/dehydration. Community- and facility-based surveillance needs to be strengthened to document the burden of disease and trends over time.Globally, 33187000 DALYs and 956000 deaths are attributed to chronic kidney disease (CKD) every year. Diabetes and hypertension are the two most common causes of CKD. Another category of CKD without any known common causes, chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu) is also increasingly reported from different regions of the world such as Central America, Sri Lanka, and India. They are predominately observed in agricultural communities where crops such as sugarcane and coconut are commonly cultivated. Young adults and males are at higher risk of developing CKDu. It mainly affects individuals belonging to lower socioeconomic status. Exposure to silica, arsenic, and fluoride might be associated with increased prevalence of CKDu. The role of heat stress in contributing to CKD through dehydration is unclear but cannot be ruled out. Mycotoxins such as aflatoxins and ochratoxins are also found to be associated with CKDu in some settings. Several studies have reported that CKDu has a significant positive association with pesticides used in agriculture such as HCH, Endosulfan, Alachlor, and Pendimethalin. There is also a possible role of infections by Hantavirus and Leptospirosis in acute febrile phase of CKDu. However, there is no conclusive evidence from studies conducted on CKDu regarding its causes and risk factors. Therefore, large-scale studies with better methodology need to be conducted to study the etiology and pathogenesis of CKDu in various settings.Chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu) is a form of chronic kidney disease (CKD) that is prevalent in certain rural populations around the world. It is distinct by its clinicopathologic characteristics and has multifactorial etiology, being mostly linked to several environmental toxins. Although the presentation is similar in various regions across the globe, it also differs in subtle ways from region to region. In India too, there have been reports of the disease in several pockets. There is a need for a comprehensive definition to identify the cases accurately to ease clinical diagnosis and facilitate screening of populations in affected areas. This article presents the diagnostic criteria for CKDu proposed in a consensus meeting at Chennai, India, in May 2017.Male urethral diverticulum is an uncommon entity, the abnormality being more frequently encountered in females. The pathology may be congenital or acquired and the more frequent acquired type usually occurs following trauma. Afflicted patients usually lack specific symptoms, although in a few instances, symptoms of lower urinary tract obstruction, calculi, or infection may prevail. Imaging investigations utilizing a composite Retrograde urethrography (RGU)- Voiding cystourethrography (VCUG) protocol are accepted as standard approach and ultrasound is considered a secondary supplementary investigation. However, recent literature reports the utility of contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) as a novel technique in the evaluation of urinary bladder and urethra, for vesico-ureteric reflux (VUR) in children and for urethral diverticula in women. We report a case of acquired post-traumatic urethral diverticulum in an adult male patient and document a relatively unexplored novel application of contrast enhanced voiding uro-sonography (CEVUS) for the evaluation of this malady.As the initial treatment of patients with the iliac occlusive disease, percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA) became common. Though not supported by the latest TransAtlantic Inter-Society Consensus (TASC) II guidelines, percutaneous treatment of complex aortoiliac lesions is possible and provides comparable angiographic and clinical outcomes compared to open surgery at both short- and long-term follow-up, also in complex lesion settings. TASC C and D lesions with the latest instruments, procedures, and modalities may also be managed endovascularly. It provides new opportunities for a population of highly comorbid patients. We assume that the outcomes of endovascular therapy for aortoiliac lesions in the setting of Takayasu's arteritis will be further enhanced through continuous technological progress and new advances in materials. In light of the current progression towards minimally invasive procedures, a growing number of skilled centres should be able to treat by endovascular intervention the great majority of all arterial pathologies.