This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.A unique approach is used to relate the HOMO-LUMO energy difference to the difference between the ionization potential (IP) and electron affinity (EA) to assist in deducing not only the colors, but also chromophores in elemental nonmetals. Our analysis focuses on compounds with lone pair electrons and σ electrons, namely X2 (X = F, Cl, Br, I), S8 , and P4 . For the dihalogens, the [IP - EA] energies are found to be F2 (12.58 eV), Cl2 (8.98 eV), Br2 (7.90 eV), I2 (6.78 eV). We suggest that the interahalogen X-X bond itself is the chromophore for these dihalogens, in which the light absorbed by the F2 , Cl2 , Br2 , I2 leads to longer wavelengths in the visible by a π → σ* transition. Trace impurities are a likely case of cyclic S8 which contains amounts of selenium leading to a yellow color, where the [IP - EA] energy of S8 is found to be 7.02 eV. Elemental P4 with an [IP - EA] energy of 9.09 eV contains a tetrahedral and σ aromatic structure. In future work, refinment of the analysis will be required for compounds with π electrons and σ electrons, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.The plant cuticle is the first physical barrier between land plants and their terrestrial environment. It consists of the polyester cutin that is imbedded and sealed with organic, solvent-extractable cuticular waxes. Cuticular wax ultrastructure and chemical composition differ with plant species, developmental stage, and physiological state. Despite this complexity, cuticular wax consistently serves a critical role in restricting nonstomatal water loss.  https://www.selleckchem.com/products/GW501516.html  It also protects the plant against other environmental stresses, including desiccation, UV radiation, microorganisms, and insects. Within the broader context of plant responses to abiotic and biotic stresses, our knowledge of the explicit roles of wax crystalline structures and chemical compounds is lacking. In this review, we summarize our current knowledge of wax biosynthesis and regulation in relation to abiotic and biotic stresses and stress responses. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.The effect of a dietary phosphorus regime in freshwater on vertebra bone mineralisation was assessed in diploid and triploid Atlantic salmon Salmo salar. Fish were fed either a low phosphorus (LP) diet containing 10.5 g kg-1 total phosphorus or a normal phosphorus (NP) diet containing 17.4 g kg-1 total phosphorus from ∼3 to ∼65 g (day 126) in body weight. Two further groups were fed the NP diet from ∼3 g in body weight, but then switched to the LP diet after 38 (∼10 g in body weight) or 77 (∼30 g in body weight) days. Growth, vertebral ash content (% ash), and radiologically detectable vertebra pathologies were assessed. Triploids were initially smaller than diploids, and again on day 77, but there was no ploidy effect on day 38 or 126. Vertebral ash content increased with increasing body size and those fish fed the NP diet had higher vertebral ash content than those groups fed the LP diet during the intervening time period, but this diet effect became less apparent as fish grew with all groups having relatively equal vertebral ash content at termination. In general, triploids had lower vertebral ash content than diploids on day 38 and this was most evident in the group fed the LP diet. On day 77, those triploids fed the LP diet during the intervening time period had lower vertebral ash content than diploids. At termination on day 126, the triploids had the same vertebral ash content as diploids, irrespective of diet. There was a ploidy × diet interaction on vertebral deformities, with triploids having higher prevalence's of fish with ≥1 deformed vertebra in all dietary groups except continuous NP. In conclusion, between days 0 and 77 (3 to 30 g body size), triploids required more dietary phosphorus than diploids in order to maintain similar vertebral ash content. A possible link between 'phosphorus feeding history' and phosphorus demand is also discussed. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.OBJECTIVE The present study tested whether ictal onset sites are regions of more severe interneuron loss in epileptic pilocarpine-treated rats, a model of human temporal lobe epilepsy. METHODS Local field potential recordings were evaluated to identify ictal onset sites. Electrode sites were visualized in Nissl-stained sections. Adjacent sections were processed with proximity ligation in situ hybridization for glutamic acid decarboxylase 2 (Gad2). Gad2 neuron profile numbers at ictal onset sites were compared to contralateral regions. Other sections were processed with immunocytochemistry for reelin or nitric oxide synthase (NOS), which labeled major subtypes of granule cell layer-associated interneurons. Stereology was used to estimate numbers of reelin and NOS granule cell layer-associated interneurons per hippocampus. RESULTS Ictal onset sites varied between and within rats but were mostly in the ventral hippocampus and were frequently bilateral. There was no conclusive evidence of more severe Gad2 neuron profile loss at sites of earliest seizure activity compared to contralateral regions. Numbers of granule cell layer-associated NOS neurons were reduced in the ventral hippocampus. SIGNIFICANCE In epileptic pilocarpine-treated rats, ictal onset sites were mostly in the ventral hippocampus, where there was loss of granule cell layer-associated NOS interneurons. These findings suggest the hypothesis that loss of granule cell layer-associated NOS interneurons in the ventral hippocampus is a mechanism of temporal lobe epilepsy. © 2020 International League Against Epilepsy.Ontogenetic studies are crucial for understanding functional morphology, origin and adaptation of skulls in vertebrates. However, very few studies have so far released complete embryonic series focusing on skull embryonic development in species showing diverse and extreme cranial morphologies such as snakes. The wide distribution and unique reproductive and ecological behaviors of venomous vipers, including the heterogeneity in breeding and egg incubation periods in oviparous species, make this group an excellent new model for studying the diversity of skull developmental processes in snakes. Here we present the first complete description of osteocranium development in a viperine snake, Cerastes cerastes, using detailed analysis of the ossification pattern of individual bones across different embryonic stages based on high-resolution micro-computed tomography data. Particularly, we describe in detail the development of the laterosphenoid from its dorsal and ventral components, dividing the trigeminal foramen into maxillary and mandibular foramina.